Control as a dynamic system

A year in research · 30 selected publications · five research threads

In 2024, we examined how the brain assembles actions, changes control modes and adapts its internal state to the demands of a particular moment.

Across experiments, populations and methods, a common message emerged: effective control is not a fixed capacity located in one brain area. It depends on representations that can be bound and released, on communication between regions, and on neural states that change with context, experience and neurochemistry.

01 · ACTION REPRESENTATIONS

Building an action - and letting it go

A shared vocabulary is essential for studying how perceptual features and actions become integrated; our consensus work therefore clarified the central concepts of perception-action integration and event coding.[1] Experiments then showed that an abandoned action plan is rapidly dismantled: discarding a plan releases its bound features rather than leaving a complete plan waiting in the background.[2] Prefrontal activity tracked how strongly stimulus and response features had to be translated and bound, while changing spatial relations weakened the later retrieval of an established action episode.[3,4]

Action control also carries a memory of the immediate past. Theta-, alpha- and beta-related processes in frontotemporal systems reflected how recently encountered information shaped the next action.[5] When people imagined the effects of an action, alpha and beta activity in cingulate and sensory regions supported predictions about the future state of the body or an external object.[6]

In plain terms: Actions are temporary structured representations: the brain creates them, uses them and actively unbinds them when they are no longer useful.

02 · NETWORK DYNAMICS

Prediction and control share a distributed architecture

Predictive coding during perception-action integration relied on directed, nonlinear communication in theta and alpha networks rather than on activity in a single region.[7] Conflict processing likewise combined top-down control with the retrieval and integration of previous action features, supporting hybrid accounts in which control and memory jointly guide behaviour.[8]

A machine-learning analysis of directed connectivity separated local increases in neural activity from reduced communication across temporo-occipital and fronto-occipital networks during the reconfiguration of perception-action associations.[9] Representational analyses identified the insular cortex as an integrative element during stopping under conflict, while tensor decomposition distinguished shared and task-specific neural configurations for action restraint and action cancellation.[10,11]

In plain terms: The same behavioural adjustment can involve stronger local processing but weaker communication between regions; activity and connectivity therefore answer different questions.

03 · METACONTROL

The brain changes its control mode

Task switching reduced the aperiodic component of the EEG signal, consistent with a flexible shift in metacontrol rather than an automatic increase in persistence whenever control is challenged.[12] Across experimental blocks, persistence was accompanied by stronger directed communication even when changes in alpha and beta power did not simply mirror behaviour.[13] Resting aperiodic activity also predicted whether individuals expressed a more stable or more adaptive control style.[14]

Conflict temporarily increased the aperiodic exponent, suggesting that the system reduces neural noise to prepare tighter control on the following trial rather than merely correcting the current response.[15] Event segmentation provided a complementary example: instructions changed sensitivity to incoming information and the use of event boundaries, with the insula contributing to the monitoring of potentially meaningful change.[16]

In plain terms: Control is not simply strong or weak. It is a dynamic choice between stabilizing what matters and opening the system to change.

04 · NEUROBIOLOGY AND STIMULATION

Why the same intervention does not affect everyone equally

Methylphenidate increased the aperiodic exponent, linking catecholaminergic enhancement to lower cortical noise and a shift in metacontrol state.[17] Yet neurochemical and electrical interventions were not additive without limit: methylphenidate and anodal stimulation shared theta-related effects in supplementary motor regions and interacted when combined.[18] Baseline GABA+ in the anterior cingulate cortex was particularly informative when cognitive effort was high, helping to predict responsiveness to catecholaminergic enhancement.[19]

Individual capacity mattered as well. The cognitive effect of pharmacologically altering catecholamines depended on how well a person could voluntarily regulate theta activity.[20] In working memory, stimulation selectively affected gate opening and its alpha- and norepinephrine-related dynamics, while directed network analyses revealed opposing, threshold-dependent mechanisms for opening and closing the gate.[21,22]

In plain terms: An intervention acts on an already organized brain; baseline chemistry, current state and self-regulatory capacity help determine the result.

05 · CLINICAL AND TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH

Specific processing profiles replace broad deficit labels

In adolescents with ADHD, additional conflict disproportionately impaired inhibition and was linked to delayed alpha modulation, while event segmentation relied less on social information and more on inferior-frontal attentional control.[23,24] In functional movement disorders, stronger post-movement beta synchronization predicted excessive perception-action binding, locating the difficulty in the integration stage rather than only in retrieval.[25]

Tourette syndrome again showed that an apparent symptom can reflect an altered learning architecture: enhanced statistical learning was associated with more efficient resting theta networks and with a heightened sensitivity to complex regularities.[26,27] By contrast, binding and retrieval of event files proved comparatively robust across the adult age groups studied.[28] Work with MDMA and methamphetamine users linked altered decision processes to stronger P3 modulation, while the ReCoDe programme connected such laboratory mechanisms to longitudinal monitoring and individualized interventions for addiction.[29,30]

In plain terms: Clinical relevance lies in identifying which operation changes, at which processing stage, and under which conditions - not in assigning one global deficit to a diagnostic group.

What 2024 added up to

The 2024 studies converged on a dynamic view of control. Perception-action representations are assembled and released; rhythmic and aperiodic activity describe complementary aspects of the system; and interventions depend on the state they encounter. This shifts the central question from where control is located to how an adaptive configuration is created for a particular demand.

Selected publications

Curated from PubMed records returned for Beste C[au] in 2024. Citation numbers in the story link to entries below. DOI links open the publisher landing page; PubMed links open the indexed record.

1. Consensus definitions of perception-action-integration in action control.

Frings C, Beste C, Benini E, Möller M, et al.. Communications psychology. 2024;2(1):7.

DOI: 10.1038/s44271-023-00050-9   ·   PubMed

2. Action plan discarding leads to unbinding of action features.

Mocke V, Beste C, Pastötter B, Kunde W. Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance. 2024;50(9):903-917.

DOI: 10.1037/xhp0001219   ·   PubMed

3. Turning the Light Switch on Binding: Prefrontal Activity for Binding and Retrieval in Action Control.

Geissler CF, Schöpper LM, Engesser AF, Beste C, Münchau A, Frings C. Journal of cognitive neuroscience. 2024;36(1):95-106.

DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02071   ·   PubMed

4. It's not distance but similarity of distance: changing stimulus relations affect the control of action sequences.

Selimi S, Frings C, Münchau A, Beste C, Moeller B. Psychological research. 2024;88(5):1727-1736.

DOI: 10.1007/s00426-024-01973-6   ·   PubMed

5. Neurophysiological processes reflecting the effects of the immediate past during the dynamic management of actions.

Rawish T, Wendiggensen P, Friedrich J, Frings C, Münchau A, Beste C. NeuroImage. 2024;288:120526.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120526   ·   PubMed

6. Neural oscillations guiding action during effects imagery.

Wilken S, Böttcher A, Adelhöfer N, Raab M, Beste C, Hoffmann S. Behavioural brain research. 2024;469:115063.

DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115063   ·   PubMed

7. Neurophysiological principles underlying predictive coding during dynamic perception-action integration.

Jamous R, Ghorbani F, Mükschel M, Münchau A, Frings C, Beste C. NeuroImage. 2024;301:120891.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120891   ·   PubMed

8. The interplay of cognitive control and feature integration: insights from theta oscillatory dynamics during conflict processing.

Pastötter B, Haciahmet CC, Beste C, Münchau A, Frings C. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991). 2024;34(8):bhae326.

DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae326   ·   PubMed

9. Neural mechanisms of adaptive behavior: Dissociating local cortical modulations and interregional communication patterns.

Talebi N, Prochnow A, Frings C, Münchau A, Mückschel M, Beste C. iScience. 2024;27(10):110995.

DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110995   ·   PubMed

10. Response stopping under conflict: The integrative role of representational dynamics associated with the insular cortex.

Ghin F, Eggert E, Gholamipourbarogh N, Talebi N, Beste C. Human brain mapping. 2024;45(6):e26643.

DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26643   ·   PubMed

11. EEG tensor decomposition delineates neurophysiological principles underlying conflict-modulated action restraint and action cancellation.

Gholamipourbarogh N, Eggert E, Münchau A, Frings C, Beste C. NeuroImage. 2024;295:120667.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120667   ·   PubMed

12. Aperiodic neural activity reflects metacontrol in task-switching.

Yan J, Yu S, Mückschel M, Colzato L, Hommel B, Beste C. Scientific reports. 2024;14(1):24088.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-74867-7   ·   PubMed

13. Neurophysiological dynamics of metacontrol states: EEG insights into conflict regulation.

Wang X, Talebi N, Zhou X, Hommel B, Beste C. NeuroImage. 2024;302:120915.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120915   ·   PubMed

14. Interindividual aperiodic resting-state EEG activity predicts cognitive-control styles.

Pi Y, Yan J, Pscherer C, Gao S, et al.. Psychophysiology. 2024;61(8):e14576.

DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14576   ·   PubMed

15. Tracing conflict-induced cognitive-control adjustments over time using aperiodic EEG activity.

Jia S, Liu D, Song W, Beste C, Colzato L, Hommel B. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991). 2024;34(5):bhae185.

DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae185   ·   PubMed

16. The metacontrol of event segmentation-A neurophysiological and behavioral perspective.

Zhou X, Ghorbani F, Roessner V, Hommel B, Prochnow A, Beste C. Human brain mapping. 2024;45(11):e26727.

DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26727   ·   PubMed

17. Catecholaminergic Modulation of Metacontrol Is Reflected by Changes in Aperiodic EEG Activity.

Gao Y, Roessner V, Stock AK, Mückschel M, Colzato L, Hommel B, Beste C. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology. 2024;27(8):pyae033.

DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyae033   ·   PubMed

18. Effects of Catecholaminergic and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Response Inhibition.

Koyun AH, Wendiggensen P, Roessner V, Beste C, Stock AK. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology. 2024;27(6):pyae023.

DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyae023   ·   PubMed

19. Interactions of catecholamines and GABA+ in cognitive control: Insights from EEG and 1H-MRS.

Koyun AH, Talebi N, Werner A, Wendiggensen P, et al.. NeuroImage. 2024;293:120619.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120619   ·   PubMed

20. The Ability to Voluntarily Regulate Theta Band Activity Affects How Pharmacological Manipulation of the Catecholaminergic System Impacts Cognitive Control.

Prochnow A, Mückschel M, Eggert E, Senftleben J, et al.. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology. 2024;27(1):pyae003.

DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyae003   ·   PubMed

21. Inhibitory control in WM gate-opening: Insights from alpha desynchronization and norepinephrine activity under atDCS stimulation.

Yu S, Konjusha A, Ziemssen T, Beste C. NeuroImage. 2024;289:120541.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120541   ·   PubMed

22. Neurophysiological effective network connectivity supports a threshold-dependent management of dynamic working memory gating.

Elmers J, Yu S, Talebi N, Prochnow A, Beste C. iScience. 2024;27(4):109521.

DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109521   ·   PubMed

23. Delayed modulation of alpha band activity increases response inhibition deficits in adolescents with AD(H)D.

Graf K, Jamous R, Mückschel M, Bluschke A, Beste C. NeuroImage. Clinical. 2024;44:103677.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103677   ·   PubMed

24. Event segmentation in ADHD: neglect of social information and deviant theta activity point to a mechanism underlying ADHD.

Prochnow A, Zhou X, Ghorbani F, Roessner V, Hommel B, Beste C. General psychiatry. 2024;37(3):e101486.

DOI: 10.1136/gpsych-2023-101486   ·   PubMed

25. Increased beta synchronization underlies perception-action hyperbinding in functional movement disorders.

Pastötter B, Weissbach A, Takacs A, Moyé J, et al.. Brain communications. 2024;6(5):fcae301.

DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae301   ·   PubMed

26. Neural representations of statistical and rule-based predictions in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome.

Takacs A, Toth-Faber E, Schubert L, Tarnok Z, et al.. Human brain mapping. 2024;45(8):e26719.

DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26719   ·   PubMed

27. Resting network architecture of theta oscillations reflects hyper-learning of sensorimotor information in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome.

Takacs A, Toth-Faber E, Schubert L, Tárnok Z, et al.. Brain communications. 2024;6(2):fcae092.

DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae092   ·   PubMed

28. Separating binding and retrieval of event files in older adults.

Münster ND, Schmalbrock P, Bäumer T, Hommel B, Beste C, Münchau A, Frings C. Acta psychologica. 2024;244:104190.

DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104190   ·   PubMed

29. Conflict monitoring and emotional processing in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and methamphetamine users - A comparative neurophysiological study.

Opitz A, Zimmermann J, Cole DM, Coray RC, et al.. NeuroImage. Clinical. 2024;41:103579.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103579   ·   PubMed

30. The ReCoDe addiction research consortium: Losing and regaining control over drug intake-Findings and future perspectives.

Spanagel R, Bach P, Banaschewski T, Beck A, et al.. Addiction biology. 2024;29(7):e13419.

DOI: 10.1111/adb.13419   ·   PubMed